You’d be surprised at how often science meets serendipity. Without happy lab accidents, we might never have discovered phosphorous or penicillin. Moreover, once an experiment’s been conducted, not even the most prescient of researchers can foresee its every impact. Who could’ve predicted, for instance, that a kerosene test would help out sperm whales? Necessity may be the mother of invention, but—as we’ll see—Lady Luck often guides the way.

1. THE GOAL: SYNTHETIC RUBBER // THE RESULT: AMERICA’S FAVORITE TOY

In World War II, the allied forces were handicapped by a severe rubber shortage. By occupying a swath of rubber-producing countries in southeast Asia, Japan had put a stranglehold on the commodity. For Britain and America, this was a serious blow. Without rubber, it would be impossible to equip their troops with such vital supplies as truck tires or gas masks. Enter an American engineer based in New Haven, Connecticut, who tried to produce a 101 Great Science Expe... Neil Ardley Best Price: $1.50 Buy New $5.45 (as of 10:53 UTC - Details) cheap, synthetic rubber. He conducted several experiments but ultimately failed in his quest. However, one day in 1943, he made a surprising discovery. Upon mixing boric acid with silicone oil, he (accidentally) invented a magic putty that could bounce, shatter, stretch, and—when applied to a newspaper—copy the print in reverse. Thus, one of the nation’s most popular toys ever was born.

2. THE GOAL: A CURE FOR MALARIA // THE RESULT: SYNTHETIC DYE, SNAIL-SAVER

William Perkin set out to fight malaria. Instead, he revolutionized the clothing industry. During his youth, malaria was ravaging Britain’s colonies. The only known remedy was quinine—a compound found in the bark of South American trees, which was very expensive to harvest. So in 1856, Perkin (a student enrolled at London’s College of Chemistry) took a stab at developing man-made quinine. After some dead-end experiments, he tinkered with a coal byproduct called aniline. The result was a thick sludge that stained his clothes purple—or “mauve” as he called it.  Just like that, the first synthetic dye was created. In doing so, he may have inadvertently rescued a certain mollusk from the brink of extinction. Previously, the most common way to get purple dye was by boiling the marine snail Bolinus brandaris alive. By comparison, Perkins’ goo was both cheaper and more resilient, killing all demand for that snail-based stuff.

3. THE GOAL: SETTLE A DEBATE // THE RESULT: MOTION PICTURES

A photographer by trade, Eadweard Muybridge definitively answered an age-old scientific question. For centuries, people wondered if galloping horses take all four hooves off the ground in mid-stride. Muybridge was asked to settle this debate by one of his customers, California governor Leland Stanford. In May 1878, he set up 24 cameras along a SoCal racetrack. Each was equipped with a special tripwire. At Muybridge’s command, a mare named Naked Eggs and Flying ... Steve Spangler Best Price: $1.11 Buy New $8.95 (as of 05:45 UTC - Details) Sallie Gardner and her rider galloped in front of the lenses, setting off the tripwires in succession as they went. The resultant series of 24 images proved—once and for all—that horses do indeed break contact with the earth as they run. But Muybridge wasn’t finished yet. Not by a long shot. He went on to produce over 700 other motion studies, capturing everything from how pigeons fly to how a javelin is thrown. In the process, he helped beget a new art form: Historians credit Muybridge with inspiring some of the very first movie projectors and cameras.

4. THE GOAL: EXPERIMENT WITH HYDROGEN // THE RESULT: ESSENTIAL PARTY DECOR

Michael Faraday rose from abject poverty to invent the first electric motor—and the first electric generator. He also discovered benzene, popularized the word “ion,” and correctly guessed that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon. Not a bad resume.  In 1824, Faraday also built the first rubber balloons to help him carry out some experiments with hydrogen. The very next year, manufacturer Thomas Hancock started selling these as toys. By the 1930s, they’d become a staple at parties on both sides of the Atlantic. No doubt Faraday would’ve appreciated their rise in popularity.

5. THE GOAL: PROVE THAT GASES COULD BE LIQUIFIED // THE RESULT: REFRIGERANTS

The Book of Totally Ir... Connolly, Sean Best Price: $0.10 Buy New $3.68 (as of 06:05 UTC - Details) In 1823, Faraday took a v-shaped glass tube and filled it with chlorine hydrate. He then simultaneously heated one side while cooling the other, in an attempt to prove the theory that gasses could be liquefied if introduced to low temperatures or high pressures. After a while, he noticed a peculiar liquid at the bottom of his container. Ever inquisitive, Faraday gently cracked open the tube. What followed was a sudden, forceful blast that sent glass shards every which way. In the aftermath, Faraday learned two things. For starters, internal pressure must have converted his chlorine hydrate into a liquid. Also, the explosion had somehow cooled down the air around him. Without meaning to, he’d just planted the seeds for the technology behind today’s iceboxes, freezers, and refrigerators.

6. THE GOAL: EXPERIMENT WITH GLASS // THE RESULT: YOUR STOVETOP

A temperature snafu was arguably the best thing that ever happened to one New York-based chemist in 1953. While tinkering with some photosensitive glass, the scientist placed a sample into a furnace and set it to 600°C—or so he thought. Then he took a breather. “When I came back, the temperature gauge was stuck on 900 degrees and I thought I’d wrecked the furnace,” he later recalled. Immediately, he pulled out the glass, which had somehow turned milky white and rock-hard. Lo and behold, his blooper created the world’s first glass-ceramic, which has since been used in everything from glass stovetops to the noses of guided missiles.

7. THE GOAL: WEIGH THE EARTH // THE RESULT: A CRUCIAL MAPMAKING TOOL

Science doesn’t get much more ambitious than this. In 1774, British astronomer Nevil Maskelyne set out to calculate the mass of our home planet. How could he possibly pull that off? Maskelyne’s strategy was two-fold. First, he determined the exact percentage of the earth’s surface that’s covered by the Schiehallion mountain in central Scotland. Afterward, his team spent 17 arduous weeks measuring Schiehallion’s every slope and cranny. This allowed Maskelyne to estimate the mountain’s mass—and, from there, the world’s. For the record, he concluded that earth has a mass of 4.5 x 1024 kilograms. Modern science puts that number at 5.98 x 1024 kilograms. Pretty amazing, isn’t it? Maskelyne’s right-hand man was mathematician Charles Hutton. To help their crew go about the whole mountain-measuring business, Hutton invented “contour lines.” A series of concentric circles, these connect points of equal elevation on maps. Over 200 years later, cartographers are still using them.

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